\chapter{C} \section{Imperfetto (Subjunctive)} \section{Trapassato (Subjunctive)} \section{Trapassato remoto (Indicative)} Used to describe actions in the far-past that were habitual or otherwise of a continuous nature. \section{Hypothetical scenarios} Se io avessi dei limoni, farei una limonata. Se tu sapessi parlare Giapponese, ci viveresti? l'importante è \section{Finché} per tutto il tempo che - As long as/so long as - Until \section{Affinché} formal word cosi al fine di per - So that - in order that \section{Purché} slightly formal word basta che a condizione che solo se a patto che - given that - provided that - so long as 'basta che' is less formal \section{Mica} mica - not (emphasis) - at all (used with non) - eccome -absolutely/definitly/indeed \part{Verbi and pronomi} \chapter{Verbs I} We're now familiar with noun phrases and creating basic sentences with the copula 'essere', however there are many things out of reach, namely describing actions that occur between noun phrases. We've introduced the copula as a verb representing the action of one noun phrase 'being' another noun phrase. We've also seen the copula link a noun phrase to just an adjective; this behaviour is unique to the copula and no other verb. Introducing verbs will allow us to express more detailed relationships between noun phrases. However due to how verbs work in Italian, it is important that we develop subjective pronouns alongside verbs to understand the bigger picture. \section{Subjective pronouns} Pronouns are used to replace nouns with generic terms that are more context-dependent. Subjective Used to represent different perspectives of who is enacting the verb; the subject. however they grammatically differ from nouns to the extent that they merit their own part of speech. io tu lui lei egli* elle* esso* essa* essi* noi voi loro \section{Introduction to verbs} Verbs and the ways they relate with pronouns are a strong candidate for the most complex set of grammar points in Italian. Because verbs are so intimately related to certain types of pronouns, we develop both in the same section. Verbs are conjugated with respect to the following grammatical categories. \begin{itemize} \item Verb class \item Mood \item Tense \item Aspect \item Person \item Number \end{itemize} \subsection{Italian verb classes} Italian verbs fall into one of three possible groups of verbs called verb classes. Each verb class has slightly different rules for conjugation. The verb classes of italian are the following. verbo di prima coinugazione (1st conjugation verb) are verbo di seconda coinugazione (2nd conjugation verb) ere arre urre orre verbo di terza coinugazione (3rd conjugation verb) ire ire2 \subsection{Mood and tense} Moods provide information about the general nature of the verb, whether it is happening in reality, whether it is an expectation, a possibility, occuring given some hypothesis etc. Italian has the following moods. \begin{itemize} \item Indicativo (Indicative) \item Imperativo (Imperative) \item Condizionale (Conditional) \item Congiuntivo (Subjunctive) \end{itemize} Within each mood, one then inflects for tense (chronological information about when event is occuring) and aspect (nature of how the verb is occuring, habitually, continuously etc.). This chapter will only discuss the fundamental inflections of the indicative and imperative mood. \section{Indicative mood} The indicative mood is a \emph{realis mood}; that is it is used for factual statements (or at least statements that the speaker is presenting to be factual). Every language has this mood, and . Indicative mood is actions occuring in reality There are 5 tenses of the indicative mood from which all other indicative tenses are build upon, however one of them is not as frequent as the rest so we defer it to the next part. We will study the 4 following tenses of the indicative mood. \begin{itemize} \item Presente (Present) \item Passato prossimo (Near past) \item Imperfetto (Imperfect) \item Futuro semplice (Simple future) \end{itemize} \subsection{Presente (Present)} This tense describes actions that happen in general, that happen now, and that will happen in the near future. Near future is a loose term; if you believe it is relatively close, then the present can be used. -----------N---------- -A-A---A-----A--A---A- -----------N---------- -----------A---------- -----------N---------- -------------A-------- \subsection{Passato prossimo (Near past)} This tense describes actions in the near past that have been definitively completed. It places emphasis on that the event happened at a simgle point in time rather than through an interval of time. Intransitive, impersonal, and reflexive verbs have essere as auxiliary to make near past. -----------N---------- --------A------------- In the north of Italy, this tense is used for anything definitively completed in the past, whereas in the south they use a tense called the remote past for such actions. Aspects: perfective, perfect \subsection{Imperfetto (imperfect)} This tense describes actions in the past that were in a continuous state or habitually repeated. Aspects: habitual, progressive -----------N---------- --AAAA---------------- -----------N---------- A--A-A---------------- \subsection{Futuro semplice (Simple future)} This tense describes things that will happen in the future, but not immediate future. -----------N---------- --------------------A- %\section{Negating a verb} %negation of verbs by 'non' %non precedes the vowel directly \section{Reflexive verbs and reflexive pronouns} \subsection{Reflexive pronouns} reflexive verbs; verbs where the subject is the direct object mi ti si ci vi si intransitive verbs; verbs that maytake an indirect object \section{Passive voice} The passive voice can be made with transitive verbs by using essere as an auxiliary verb with the past participle la mela e' mangiata la palla e' calciata l'uomo e' ucciso \section{Modal verbs} Potere volere dovere posso parlare giapponese voglio visitare Sicilia devo sconfiggere quest'apprensione \subsection{Adjectival adverbs} Some adjectives can be inflected to become adverbs -amente -emente veloce -> velocemente perfetto -> perferttamente giusto -> giustamente Lui corre velocemente possono cantare perfettamente voglio parlare fluentemente ha scelto saggiamente \section{Imperative mood} Imperative mood is about describing commands. The imperative mood has simply one tense; the present \subsection{Presente (Present)} This tense describes actions given as commands, that should take place during the same timespan as the indicative present and simple future (in general, present, or future). It Since the imperative mood is about giving orders specifically for the listener, it is only conjugated for the 2nd-person or the 1st-person when meant in the inclusive sense (the speaker and the listener being incorporated in the 'noi'). Subjective pronouns are always dropped di' le parole mangiate le verdure lava le mani \subsubsection{Negating with imperative} non usare il telefonino non tradite le vostre mogli %When forming negative for the 2nd-person singular in the imperative, we use the infinitive for euphonic reasons. \section{Relative pronouns} che a cui di qui con cui [noun] [relative pronoun] [relative clause] \section{interrogative pronouns} pronoun to represent an unknown direct object used in questioning. che (for things; when category is unknown; what) cosa che cosa chi (for people; who) quale (for selection of things; when category is known; which; which one) We have studied some pronouns, however pronouns that reflect person are intimately linked with verbs and often have unique rules. \chapter{Personal pronouns} We are familiar with subjective and reflexive pronouns, now we will take a look at the more advanced personal pronouns and give examples of how they interact with verbs. \section{Direct pronouns} transitive verbs; verbs that may take a direct object mi ti lo la ci vi li le \section{Indirect pronouns} Some verbs in italian are intransitive where english uses transitive verb giocare a calcio parlare al telefono these are indirect objects, linked by some preposition. Italian has pronouns to represent indirect object mi ti gli le ci vi gli a loro parlo a lei le parlo mando a te ti mando 2more important intranaitives where indirect object and subject ione object are switched with respect to english It is worth mentioning the two verbs 'piacere' and 'mancare'; they are commonly translated as 'to like' and 'to miss', however they function in quite a different way to English. A more grammatically faithful translation is as given below. mancare a qualcuno means To be missing to someone piacere a qualcuno means to be pleasing to someone If you do interpret piacere as 'to like', you swap the subject and direct object to become the indirect object and subject respectively; this trick can be used to mechanically translate, however as always, it is best to learn Italian by getting used to the language. \section{Impersonal pronoun} si non si vedono i fuochi artifici da questa parte. non si puo' fare! when verb is reflexive, we use the following combination as the impersonal pronoun. ci si \part{Advanced} \chapter{Even more pronouns and verbs} \section{Genitive personal pronouns} ne di me di te di lui di lei di noi di voi di loro \section{Instrumental personal pronouns} ci ce con me con te con lui con lei con noi con voi con loro \section{Double pronouns} \section{Impersonal pronoun} si - inflected based on object rather than subject - Always uses essere as auxiliary verb - plural participle used for verbs that normally use essere as auxiliary verb \section{Relative pronouns}