\part{Grammar points}

\chapter{A1}








\section{Nouns}
\subsection{Determining a noun's gender}


As discussed, nouns in italian are either male or female. Knowing the gender of a noun will be important for applying articles and adjectives to nouns, and later replacing nouns with pronouns.

There are some patterns one can use to help determine the gender of a noun.

Usually nouns ending in a are feminine and o are masculine. 
There are notable exceptions
female
-à
-ione
-trice
-ù
male
-ore
-ale


\subsubsection{Irregularities}
analisi
catalessi
epistassi

mano
ape
arma

problema
tema

moquette
équipe
peluche


result of being abbreviations of larger words
foto
frigo




\subsection{Pluralizing nouns}

Italian permits a pluralizing inflection to let a noun refer to multiple instances of an object.
In general (there are weird exceptions we will discuss), a noun retains the same gender in its plural.

o	i
e	i
a	e

Any other ending remains unchanged in the plural



\subsubsection{Irregularities}
uomo	uomini
bue	buoi
dio	dei
ala	ali
foto	foto
frigo	frigo
zoo	zoo
auto	auto


\subsubsection{Irregularities; changing gender in plural}
There are instances of words that not only have irregular plurals, but whose gender changes from masculine to feminine in the plural. Interestingly, there are no words that change from feminine to masculine in the plural.


braccio
dito
lenzuolo
uovo
paio
carcere*
corno
fondamento
gesto (in literary sense)
muro
labbro
ginocchio
membro
filo
osso
ciglio
cervello*
centinaio*
infradito*







\section{Articles}
\subsection{Articoli definiti (definite articles)}
Definite articles are used to represent a specific, unique (possibly the only) instance (or group of instances) of a noun. For example if I have some books on a table, one particular book being in both the speaker and listener's minds, one can use the definite article to conveniently request a specific book that the context surrounds. This essentially is just the word 'the'.

Articles in italian are formed by gender, number and euphonics

il la lo l' i le gli


singular
l'	vowel
lo	male,s
il	male
la	female

plural
gli	male,vowel
gli	male,s
i	male
le	female

It's interesting to note that Italian employs articles when talking about an abstract concept as an object, so 'Love is blind' is 'L'amore e' cieco'.

\subsection{Articoli indefiniti (indefinite articles)}
un una uno un'

un'	vowel
uno	male,s
un	male
una	female


\section{Adjectives}
\section{Modifying nouns directly with adjectives}
\subsection{Gender agreement}

\subsection{Plurality agreement}

\subsection{Order of adjectives}

There are a select few 'grammatical' adjectives that are placed behind the article, however for the most part they either directly precede or procede the noun it modifies.

Some adjectives must be before the noun, while others must be directly after, while some can be placed either in front or behind, possibly changing the meaning conveyed.

BAGS


In Italian, order of adjectives is relatively free, however emphasis changes depending on whether the adjective
quality, size, age, quantity usually before noun 
in ambiguous cases, figurative meaning of adjective means adjective before noun







\section{Molto,Tanto}
molto
tanto




\section{Numerals}

Depending on one's analysis, one can abolish the numerals part of speech and consider numbers to be nouns or adjectives depending on the use case (i.e whether you are counting something, or considering the number on its own). Our analysis will accept numerals as a part of speech so we can consider all use cases at the same time. 

Numerals are nouns or adjectives, depending on the context one uses them in.


Note that for describing the fact that there is one (1) of some noun, we use the indefinite article, so we only use 'uno' when we have a masculine wordwith euphonic S.

uno
due
tre
quattro
cinque
sei
sette
otto
nove
dieci
undici
dodici
tredici
quattordici
quindici
sedici
diciassette
diciotto
diciannove
venti
trenta
quaranta
cinquanta
sessanta
settanta
ottanta
novanta
cento
cento e [1<= n < 100 ]
mille 
[ 1< n < 1000] mila
milione	milion
miliardo	billion
bilione	trillion
biliardo	quadrillion
trilione	quintillion
triliardo	sextillion
quadrilione	septillion
quadriliardo	octillion
quntilione	nonillion
quntiliardo	decillion



sei (6)
quattordici (14)
ventisei (26)
quarantotto (48)
sessantasette (67)
centuno (101)
milenovecentoottantacinque (1985)
ventitremilanovecentocinquantasei 23956
duecentonovantacinquemilacentosessantotto (295168)
tremillionisettecentotrentaseimilaquattrocentosettantacinque (3736475)


For euphonics, we merge 1 and 8 with its tens (venti, trenta, quaranta etc.), cento, miliardo, billiardo,trilliardo, quadrilionardo etc.
sessantuno (61)
sessantotto (68)
\subsection{Ordinal numbers}
primo
secondo
terzo
quarto
quinto
sesto
settimo
ottavo
nono
dicesimo
-esimo


\section{Tutti e ~}

Mi permetti portare tutti e 8 a casa?
Will you let me take all 8 of them home?




















\part{Verbi and pronomi}




\chapter{Verbs I}

We're now familiar with noun phrases and creating basic sentences with the copula 'essere', however there are many things out of reach, namely describing actions that occur between noun phrases.

We've introduced the copula as a verb representing the action of one noun phrase 'being' another noun phrase. We've also seen the copula link a noun phrase to just an adjective; this behaviour is unique to the copula and no other verb.

Introducing verbs will allow us to express more detailed relationships between noun phrases. However due to how verbs work in Italian, it is important that we develop subjective pronouns alongside verbs to understand the bigger picture.


\section{Subjective pronouns}

Pronouns are used to replace nouns with generic terms that are more context-dependent.

Subjective Used to represent different perspectives of who is enacting the verb; the subject. however they grammatically differ from nouns to the extent that they merit their own part of speech.
io
tu
lui
lei
egli*
elle*
esso*
essa*
essi*
noi
voi
loro


\section{Introduction to verbs}

Verbs and the ways they relate with pronouns are a strong candidate for the most complex set of grammar points in Italian. Because verbs are so intimately related to certain types of pronouns, we develop both in the same section.

Verbs are conjugated with respect to the following grammatical categories.

\begin{itemize}
\item Verb class
\item Mood
\item Tense
\item Aspect
\item Person
\item Number
\end{itemize}

\subsection{Italian verb classes}

Italian verbs fall into one of three possible groups of verbs called verb classes. Each verb class has slightly different rules for conjugation.

The verb classes of italian are the following.

verbo di prima coinugazione (1st conjugation verb)
are

verbo di seconda coinugazione (2nd conjugation verb)
ere arre urre orre

verbo di terza coinugazione (3rd conjugation verb)
ire ire2

\subsection{Mood and tense}

Moods provide information about the general nature of the verb, whether it is happening in reality, whether it is an expectation, a possibility, occuring given some hypothesis etc.

Italian has the following moods.

\begin{itemize}
	\item Indicativo (Indicative)
	\item Imperativo (Imperative)
	\item Condizionale (Conditional)
	\item Congiuntivo (Subjunctive)
\end{itemize}

Within each mood, one then inflects for tense (chronological information about when event is occuring) and aspect (nature of how the verb is occuring, habitually, continuously etc.).




This chapter will only discuss the fundamental inflections of the indicative and imperative mood.

\section{Indicative mood}


The indicative mood is a \emph{realis mood}; that is it is used for factual statements (or at least statements that the speaker is presenting to be factual). Every language has this mood, and .
Indicative mood is actions occuring in reality

There are 5 tenses of the indicative mood from which all other indicative tenses are build upon, however one of them is not as frequent as the rest so we defer it to the next part.
We will study the 4 following tenses of the indicative mood.
\begin{itemize}
	\item Presente (Present)
	\item Passato prossimo (Near past)
	\item Imperfetto (Imperfect)
	\item Futuro semplice (Simple future)
\end{itemize}


\subsection{Presente (Present)}
This tense describes actions that happen in general, that happen now, and that will happen in the near future. Near future is a loose term; if you believe it is relatively close, then the present can be used.


-----------N----------
-A-A---A-----A--A---A-


-----------N----------
-----------A----------

-----------N----------
-------------A--------


\subsection{Passato prossimo (Near past)}
This tense describes actions in the near past that have been definitively completed. It places emphasis on that the event happened at a simgle point in time rather than through an interval of time.

Intransitive, impersonal, and reflexive verbs have essere as auxiliary to make near past.


-----------N----------
--------A-------------

In the north of Italy, this tense is used for anything definitively completed in the past, whereas in the south they use a tense called the remote past for such actions.
Aspects: perfective, perfect

\subsection{Imperfetto (imperfect)}
This tense describes actions in the past that were in a continuous state or habitually repeated.
Aspects: habitual, progressive

-----------N----------
--AAAA----------------


-----------N----------
A--A-A----------------




\subsection{Futuro semplice (Simple future)}
This tense describes things that will happen in the future, but not immediate future.


-----------N----------
--------------------A-



%\section{Negating a verb}
%negation of verbs by 'non'
%non precedes the vowel directly

\section{Reflexive verbs and reflexive pronouns}
\subsection{Reflexive pronouns}
reflexive verbs; verbs where the subject is the direct object
mi
ti
si
ci
vi
si
intransitive verbs; verbs that maytake an indirect object







\section{Modal verbs}
Potere
volere
dovere

posso parlare giapponese
voglio visitare Sicilia
devo sconfiggere quest'apprensione



\subsection{Adjectival adverbs}
Some adjectives can be inflected to become adverbs 
-amente
-emente
veloce -> velocemente
perfetto -> perferttamente
giusto -> giustamente

Lui corre velocemente
possono cantare perfettamente
voglio parlare fluentemente
ha scelto saggiamente










\section{Imperative mood}

Imperative mood is about describing commands.
The imperative mood has simply one tense;  the present

\subsection{Presente (Present)}
This tense describes actions given as commands, that should take place during the same timespan as the indicative present and simple future (in general, present, or future). It 
Since the imperative mood is about giving orders specifically for the listener, it is only conjugated for the 2nd-person or the 1st-person when meant in the inclusive sense (the speaker and the listener being incorporated in the 'noi').

Subjective pronouns are always dropped

di' le parole
mangiate le verdure
lava le mani




\subsubsection{Negating with imperative}

non usare il telefonino
non tradite le vostre mogli
%When forming negative for the 2nd-person singular in the imperative, we use the infinitive for euphonic reasons.






\section{Fundamental preposizioni}

They will represent the ways that a verbo can indirectly relate to an indirect object according to Italian. Granted, there are basic English prepositions that can directly translate unreasonably well to our basic preposizioni, however an inderstanding more rooted in how Italian treats these semantically gives a truly rich understanding of the language.

We provide the basic prepositions with rough english equivalents, and then disucss their actual use.

in	in
su	on
a	at
con	with
di	of,some
da	from,since
tra	between
fra	between
per	for


Romeo regala un'anello a Juliet
Giovanni passa le chiavi a Danielle
L'avventura strana di Jojo


\subsection{In}

\subsection{A}
a [infinitive] <-> to [go and do] [verb]


\subsection{Con}
\subsection{Di}

di [infinitive] <-> about [verb]
\subsection{Da}
fro
\subsection{Tra and Fra}


\subsection{Per}

per [infinitive] <-> in order to [verb]



\subsection{Articulated preposizioni}

nel nella nell' nello negli nelle
sul sulla sull' sullo sugli sulle
al alla all' allo agli alle
col
del della dell' dello degli delle
dal dalla dall' dallo dagli dalle

\subsection{Euphonic D}
There is a rule regarding the words e,a,o.

a ad
e ed
o od

\section{Other preposizioni}
sotto
sopra
addosso a

dopo di
prima di
oltre









































\section{Relative pronouns}
che
a cui
di qui
con cui

[noun] [relative pronoun] [relative clause]


\section{interrogative pronouns}
pronoun to represent an unknown direct object used in questioning.
che (for things; when category is unknown; what)
cosa 
che cosa
chi (for people; who)
quale (for selection of things; when category is known; which; which one)


We have studied some pronouns, however pronouns that reflect person are intimately linked with verbs and often have unique rules.



\chapter{Personal pronouns}

We are familiar with subjective and reflexive pronouns, now we will take a look at the more advanced personal pronouns and give examples of how they interact with verbs.




\section{Direct pronouns}
transitive verbs; verbs that may take a direct object
mi
ti
lo
la
ci
vi
li
le
\section{Indirect pronouns}
Some verbs in italian are intransitive where english uses transitive verb
giocare a calcio
parlare al telefono

these are indirect objects, linked by some preposition. Italian has pronouns to represent indirect object

mi
ti
gli
le
ci
vi
gli
a loro



parlo a lei
le parlo
mando a te
ti mando



2more important intranaitives where indirect object and subject ione object are switched with respect to english

It is worth mentioning the two verbs 'piacere' and 'mancare'; they are commonly translated as 'to like' and 'to miss', however they function in quite a different way to English. A more grammatically faithful translation is as given below.

mancare a qualcuno means To be missing to someone
piacere a qualcuno means to be pleasing to someone


If you do interpret piacere as 'to like', you swap the subject and direct object to become the indirect object and subject respectively; this trick can be used to mechanically translate, however as always, it is best to learn Italian by getting used to the language.

\section{Impersonal pronoun}

Used to show that some verb occurs by some unspecified agent, used to show that a verb takes place generally. 
3rd person is always used, if the verb is transitive and taking a direct object, 3rd person singular for singular object and 3rd person plural for plural object.

si

non si vedono i fuochi artifici da questa parte.
non si puo' fare!

\subsection{With reflexive verbs}
when verb is reflexive, we use ci si instead of si si

Quando arriva gennaio, ci si diverte un mondo.
People have a whole lot of fun once January arrives.

\subsection{With copula and adjectives}

Durante l'estate, si e' rilassati.

\subsection{Passato prossimo with avere auxiliary verbs}
auxiliary changed to essere 

Durante il lockdown si è letto molto.
During lockdown, people read alot.

\subsection{Passato prossimo with essere auxiliary verbs}
auxiliary changed to essere and participle made male and plural.

Negli anni ottanta, si e' andati a monopattinare.
In the 80s people often went to rollerskate.















































\part{Advanced}


\chapter{Even more pronouns and verbs}



\section{Genitive personal pronouns}
ne
di me
di te
di lui
di lei
di noi
di voi
di loro
\section{Instrumental personal pronouns}
ci
ce
con me
con te 
con lui
con lei
con noi
con voi
con loro
\section{Double pronouns}
\section{Impersonal pronoun}
si
- inflected based on object rather than subject
- Always uses essere as auxiliary verb
- plural participle used for verbs that normally use essere as auxiliary verb
\section{Relative pronouns}








%\chapter{Verbs II}
\section{Indicative}
\subsection{Near pluperfect}
\subsection{Anterior future}
\subsection{Remote past}
Used to describe actions in the far-past that have been definitively completed
\subsection{Far pluperfect}
Used to describe actions in the far-past that were habitual or otherwise of a continuous nature.

\section{Conditional}
present
past













\section{Possessive adjectives/pronouns}
il mio tuo suo nostro vostro loro
mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs


\section{Demonstratives}

they can be used as pronouns, but also as adjectives to give distance-based context to an object

\section{Demonstrative adjectives}
\subsection{Proximal}
questo questa questi queste
\subsection{Distal}
quel quello quella quei quelle quegli

questo giorno dura per troppo tempo
quest'amore, è un'motore.

\section{Demonstrative pronouns}
pronoun to represent generic object based on distance from speaker
\subsection{Proximal}
questo questa questi queste
\subsection{Distal}
quello quella quelli quelle







\section{The copula}
We cannot string sentences together yet, and that is because we haven't discussed verbs yet. There exists a verb that is extremely important and we introduce it early.
We introduce the verb 'essere'



Questa classe è noioso.
Il mio amico è grasso.
Queste ragazze sono alte.


Tom è un mio amico.
Tempo è denaro
i cani sono animali



\section{Comparative, superlative}
X
più X
[article] più X

\subsection{Irregularities}
buono	migliore/meglio	il migliore
cattivo	peggiore/peggio 	il peggiore

When using grande and piccolo in the sense of age, we use the following.

grande	maggiore	il maggiore
piccolo	minore	il minore







\section{Absolute superlative}
Many of the (except French and Romanian) also have a way of inflecting adjectives to represent the \emph{absolute superlative}.
-issimo


\section{Equal comparisons}
come
cosi ~ come
tanto ~ quanto ~







\section{Modal verbs}
potere
volere
dovere
sapere
\section{Quasimodal verbs}
Although not modal verbs, we can see verbs affecting other verbs
cominciare a
stare per (about to)
provare a




\section{E}
and
fragole e cioccolato
ha ucciso il presidente e fuggito dal paese



\section{Non}

non mangio spazzatura.
non voglio morire, a volta auguro che io non fossi mai nato


\section{Più che, Più di, Meno che, Meno di}
comparative;
più _ di _ comparing adjective with other noun
più _ che _ comparing two adjectives
meno  _ di _ comparing adjective with other noun
meno _ che _ comparing two adjectives

\section{Il più, Il meno}
superlative; indicates 
il più
il meno

\section{Troppo}
adjective
Ci sono troppe persone in questa camera.
Non pompare troppa benzina nella macchina.
ho fatto troppi errori ieri.

adverb
la maglia è troppo vibrante, non mimetizzeresti.
mamma, la mensola è troppo alta per me, non posso raggiungere la marmellata!

\section{Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns}
mio tuo suo nostro vostro loro
[definite article] [possesive pronoun inflected for gender]
A notable exception is that the definite article dropped when talking about a singular family member.

la mia giacca
Il nostro piano
mio fratello 

il mio tuo suo nostro vostro loro
mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs

è la mia!
non ho un celluare, ma puoi usare il suo.
quella gonna è la tua?
i vostri obiettivi sono i nostri.




\section{Buono, Bravo, Bello, Bene}


\section{Set expressions}
per favore
per cortesia
si prega
grazie per
che ore sono





\section{Verbal expressions}
avere fame
avere sete
avere ragione
avere torto
avere ~ anni
fare bella figura
prendere in giro
non vedere l'ora (di)
fare una soffiata (su)















\chapter{A2}

\section{Presto}

\section{Qui, qua, lì, là}
qui qua
li la

\section{Ma, però}
Ma
-but
però
-but/though/however



\section{Perché}
-because
-why
\section{a causa di/a via di}
because of


\section{Dove}
dove (where)

\section{Quando}
quando (when)

\section{Sotto,sopra, accanto, attorno}
\section{dietro, indietro, alle spalle}
\section{Avanti, davanti, di fronte}


\section{Se}
if
se ammetti il tuo crimine, nesuno ti assumerà mai.
la matrice e invertibile se e solo se il determinante non è zero.
se parli, muori.
whether
non so se ha spento le luci.

\section{Siccome, poiché, giacché}

-since/seeing that
poiché
-since/seeing that
giacché (more formal)
-since/seeing that


\subsection{Quindi,dunque,cosicché,sicché,perciò}
quindi
- therefore/sor
dunque
-therefore/so
sicché
-Therefore/thus/so



\section{Ancora}
-still
-again


\section{Anche, pure, perfino, persino, addirittura}
anche
-also/even/too
pure
-also/even/too
-more emphasis than 'anche'


\section{Neanche, neppure, nemmeno}
neanche
-not even

neppure
-not even
-more emphasis than 'neanche'

nemmeno
- not even


\section{O}
o/oppure/altrimenti
%\section{o ~ o ~}
%\section{oppure ~ oppure ~}
-or

né
- neither

ovvero;ossia
-or
e
appena	just



\subsection{quando}

quando vai in giappone?

vieni quando vuoi!




non appena	as soon as
il momento in cui the moment that
\subsection{Dove}
3 main uses

dove vivono i conigli?
sai dov'è seppolto archimede?

voglio esplorare dove nessuno è mai stato.
portami alla città paradiso, dove l'erba e verde e le ragazze sono belle.


benveuto alla città dove non vige la legge
un luogo dove si mangia bene è certamente piacevole ad un'italiano.





\section{mentre}
studo mentre ascolto la musica.


\section{prima, dopo}
prima
dopo

prima di
dopo di

prima che
dopo che





\section{Quasi}

\section{Come}
come (how)
come (like) ([verb*] come [noun phrase])
come
-like
-how
-as/how

\section{Quanto}
quanto (how much)
quanto (the amount that)

\section{Che}
3 main uses

Che bel film!
Che stronzo!

che colore è?
che macchina guidi?
che tipo di gelato vuoi?

La domanda che nessuno ha chiesto
la città che non dorme
l'autista che ha vinto la gara


\section{che cosa, cosa}
cosa means 'thing'
che cosa is a placeholder for an unknown object
cosa is also short for che cosa

\section{quale}
quale canzone preferisci?
non so quale scegliere!




\section{Fa (ago)}
è nata due giorni fa, che carina!
due secoli fa, non c'erano gli auto!

\section{Allora}
Used as an interjection
- in that case/then/well then/so
Used to mean 'in that case', 'then'
Se nessuna è venuta la notte scorsa, allora perché c'è biancheria delle donne sul nostro letto matrimonio?
If nobody came last night, then why is there women's underwear on our marital bed?
Used to mean 'at the time'
- at the time
Allora non pensavo dei effetti, però nella fine si deve risicare quello che rosica.
At the time I wasn't thinking about the effects, but in the end you've got to reap what you sew.


\section{Prima, dopo}
qualche vol
Prima 	before
dopo after

\section{Scorso, prossimo}
Scorso	last
prossimo next 


\section{~ di più}

\section{Senza}

sono entrato senza pagare.
lui communica senza dire una parola.

cioccolato senza lo zucchero



\section{Secondo}
according to

secondo me, questo fa schifo
secondo te, qual'è meglio?
secondo gli italiani, i maltesi sono siciliani.

\section{tocca a}
tocca a me!
tocca a lui per affrontare la verità.


\section{al contrario}
on the contrary
al contrario non ha paura

\section{qualche volta, a volte}
sometimes
a volte vado dalla nonna.










