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Linguistics

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Sematics

Feature

Property affecting the semantic interpretation of a word or clause. This in turn may affect morphology and syntax, but is fundamentally a semantic concept

Case

Feature relating to grammatical functions of a nominal clause

• Dative; indirect object of a verb
• Accusative; direct object of a transitive verb
• Instrumental; object used as a means or companion of an action
• Genitive; possessor of a noun
• Ablative; movement away from
• Nominative; subject of finite verb
• Vocative
• Locative

Tense

Feature relating to the chroonology of a clause

• Present tense; general or present occurence
• Past perfect tense; occurence which has been completed in the past
• Imperfect past tense; continuous or habitual occurence in the past
• Simple future tense; definitive occurence in the future
• Remote past tense occurence in the distant past with minimal bearing on the present
• Pluperfect tense; Inflects verbs to represent an occurence which had been completed in the past in contrary to another event

Gender

Feature relating to classes of nouns of which a noun can only belong to one singlular class

Number

Feature relating to the quantity of referents

• Singular; inflection for a singluar referent
• Plural; inflection for multiple referents
• Dual;
• Trial;
• Quadral;
• Quintal;
• Paucal;
• Greater paucal;
• General;
• Plurative;

Aspect

Feature relating to the nature of the duration of a verbal clause

Mood

Feature relating to the nature of a clause

• Realis moods; Class of moods regarding events that decisively occur or do not occur
• Irrealis moods; Class of moods regarding events that do not necesarily occur in reality

• Indicative mood; Realis mood expressing true statements
• Imperative mood; Irrealis mood expressing commands or requests
• Conditional mood; Irrealis mood expressing events that are realized under a certain condition
• Subjunctive mood; Irrealis mood expressing some suggested scenario
• Optative mood; Irrealis mood expressing desired scenarios
• Desiderative mood; Irrealis mood expressing desired scenarios

Voice

Honorifics

Feature relating to the class of honour depicted in a clause

Polarity

• Affirmation
• Negation

Comparison

Feature expressing comparison of the intensity of some quality between different referents

• Comparative comparision implies that a subject relates to the adjective to a higher degree than another subject
• Superlative comparision implies that a subject relates to the adjective to the highest degree; it relates to that adjective the most compared to all other subjects
• Absolute superlative comparision implies that a subject relates to the adjective to an extreme degree

Syntax

Grammatical relation

Relationship between clauses in a sentence

Subject

Clause representing the catalyst of the verb; the entity that is carrying out the action

Object

• Direct; Clause representing the literal target of a verb
• Indirect; Clause representing a recipient of a verb

Instrument

Clause representing the instrument assisting the subject in carrying out the verb

Word order

Order that certain clauses and words appear in a sentence

Constituent order

\(3!=6\) different fundamental grammar orderings for the ordering of a subject, object and verb in a clause

Order of modifiers

Order of adverbials

Vocative expression

Wh-movement

Morphology

Word

Fundamental element of a language that carries a meaning

Word class

A class of words that obey specific syntactical and morphological rules. Examples in English include nouns and verbs, but one should be aware that such terms for classification may vary between languages

Morpheme

Smallest semantic element in a phrase, all words are composed of at least 1 morpheme.

Affix

Morpheme appended to a word to form a new word

• Prefix
• Suffic

Clitic

Morpheme that is dependent on another word, often being an affix

Root

Pronoun

Word used to denote the subject and object without using specific nouns, or showing ownership

Demonstrative pronouns

Pronouns used to substitute subject or object in relation to proximity

Relative pronouns

Pronoun that links a clause to a noun to refer to a more specific referent

Indefinite pronouns

Pronoun that represents an unidentified referent

Subjective pronouns

Pronouns used to show the subject of a verb

Direct object pronoun

Pronouns used to show the object of a verb

Indirect object pronoun

Pronouns used to show the indirect object of a verb

Reflexive pronoun

Pronouns used when object is also subject

Possessive pronoun

Pronouns used to show the ownership of a noun to a subject

Double pronoun

Pronouns used when object is also subject

Impersonal pronoun

Pronouns used to denote general subject, verb needs to be in third person and conjugated for plurality of the object

Copula

Verb linking its subject to a clause

Modal verb

Inflection

Process of modifying a word's phonological and literal structure to represent certain grammatical categories

Conjugation

Inflection of a verb

Infinitive

Form of verbs that is often the non-finite

Nonfinite verb

Uninflected verb form

Periphrasis

Process of combining words syntactically to represent certain grammatical categories

Gerund

Conjugation transforming the verb into a noun representing the idea of carrying out said verb

Phonology

Vowels

Sound with no stricture in the vocal tract;

• Horizontal tongue position
• Vertical tongue position
• Roundedness

	Front	Front-central	Central	Back-central	Back
Close
Near-close
Close-mid
Mid
Open-mid
Near-open
Open

Consonants

Pulmonic consonants

Non-pulmonic consonants